In 2023, employed non-EU citizens in the EU were almost twice as likely to be over-qualified than nationals for their job. The over-qualification rate was 39.4% for non-EU citizens (0.1 percentage points (pp) lower than in 2022) and 31.3% for citizens of other EU countries (-0.3 pp). By contrast, the over-qualification rate for nationals stood at 20.8%, 0.3 pp less than in the previous year. Among the EU countries, in 2023, the highest share of over-qualified non-EU citizens was recorded in Greece (69.6%), Italy (64.1%) and Spain (56.0%).(....)